Utilizing a longitudinal design and drawing subjects from an ongoing study, this investigation will examine the underlying socialization mechanisms that protect children from smoking uptake in early adolescence and will evaluate a model of direct and indirect effects of parental and peer anti-smoking protective influences on pre-adolescents. While important social influences on smoking initiation have been identified in previous research, an adequate understanding of specific protective socialization mechanisms for children from different ethnic backgrounds remains elusive. Approximately 291 pre-adolescents (ages 9-13) will be recruited and followed for 18 months through primary care clinics in an urban children's hospital. As part of an existing research protocol, parents and children will complete measures at three time points of smoking status, parental socialization practices, perceived peer use, exposure to tobacco products from parents and friends, and general parenting practices. Preliminary cross- sectional analysis of baseline data will be conducted to examine independent socialization predictors of smoking uptake. In addition, multiple group comparisons of a longitudinal model of indirect and direct socialization influences on smoking uptake will be conducted for different gender and ethnic groups.